Rain Rate Estimation with SAR using NEXRAD measurements with Convolutional Neural Networks

Remote sensing of rainfall events is critical for both operational and scientific needs, including for example weather forecasting, extreme flood mitigation, water cycle monitoring, etc. Ground-based weather radars, such as NOAA's Next-Generation Radar (NEXRAD), provide reflectivity and precipitation measurements of rainfall events. However, the observation range of such radars is limited to a few hundred kilometers, prompting the exploration of other remote sensing methods, paricularly over the open ocean, that represents large areas not covered by land-based radars. For a number of decades, C-band SAR imagery such a such as Sentinel-1 imagery has been known to exhibit rainfall signatures over the sea surface. However, the development of SAR-derived rainfall products remains a challenge. Here we propose a deep learning approach to extract rainfall information from SAR imagery. We demonstrate that a convolutional neural network, such as U-Net, trained on a colocated and preprocessed Sentinel-1/NEXRAD dataset clearly outperforms state-of-the-art filtering schemes. Our results indicate high performance in segmenting precipitation regimes, delineated by thresholds at 1, 3, and 10 mm/h. Compared to current methods that rely on Koch filters to draw binary rainfall maps, these multi-threshold learning-based models can provide rainfall estimation for higher wind speeds and thus may be of great interest for data assimilation weather forecasting or for improving the qualification of SAR-derived wind field data.Comment: 25 pages, 10 figure

Analysis and Interpretation of Frequency-Wavenumber Spectra of Young Wind Waves

The energy level and its directional distribution are key observations for understanding the energy balance in the wind-wave spectrum between wind-wave generation, nonlinear interactions, and dissipation. Here, properties of gravity waves are investigated from a fixed platform in the Black Sea, equipped with a stereo video system that resolves waves with frequency f up to 1.4 Hz and wavelengths from 0.6 to 11 m. One representative record is analyzed, corresponding to young wind waves with a peak frequency f(p) = 0.33 Hz and a wind speed of 13 m s(-1). These measurements allow for a separation of the linear waves from the bound second-order harmonics. These harmonics are negligible for frequencies f up to 3 times f(p) but account for most of the energy at higher frequencies. The full spectrum is well described by a combination of linear components and the second-order spectrum. In the range 2f(p) to 4f(p), the full frequency spectrum decays like f(-5), which means a steeper decay of the linear spectrum. The directional spectrum exhibits a very pronounced bimodal distribution, with two peaks on either side of the wind direction, separated by 150 degrees at 4f(p). This large separation is associated with a significant amount of energy traveling in opposite directions and thus sources of underwater acoustic and seismic noise. The magnitude of these sources can be quantified by the overlap integral I(f), which is found to increase sharply from less than 0.01 at f = 2f(p) to 0.11 at f = 4f(p) and possibly up to 0.2 at f = 5f(p), close to the 0.5 value proposed in previous studies

Measuring ocean surface velocities with the KuROS and KaRADOC airborne near-nadir Doppler radars: a multi-scale analysis in preparation of the SKIM mission, Submitted to Ocean SCience, July 2019

Surface currents are poorly known over most of the oceans. Satellite-borne Doppler Waves and Current Scatterom-eters (DWCS) can be used to fill this observation gap. The Sea surface KInematics Multiscale (SKIM) proposal, is the first satellite concept built on a DWCS design at near-nadir angles, and now one of the two candidates to become the 9th mission of the European Space Agency Earth Explorer program. As part of the detailed design and feasibility studies (phase A) funded by ESA, airborne measurements were carried out with both a Ku-Band and a Ka-Band Doppler radars looking at the sea surface at 5 near nadir-incidence in a real-aperture mode, i.e. in a geometry and mode similar to that of SKIM. The airborne radar KuROS was deployed to provide simultaneous measurements of the radar backscatter and Doppler velocity, in a side-looking configuration , with an horizontal resolution of about 5 to 10 m along the line of sight and integrated in the perpendicular direction over the real-aperture 3-dB footprint diameter (about 580 m). The KaRADOC system has a much narrower beam, with a circular footprint only 45 m in diameter. 10 The experiment took place in November 2018 off the French Atlantic coast, with sea states representative of the open ocean and a well known tide-dominated current regime. The data set is analyzed to explore the contribution of non-geophysical velocities to the measurement and how the geophysical part of the measured velocity combines wave-resolved and wave-averaged scales. We find that the measured Doppler velocity contains a characteristic wave phase speed, called here C 0 that is analogous to the Bragg phase speed of coastal High Frequency radars that use a grazing measurement geometry, with little 15 variations ∆ C associated to changes in sea state. The Ka-band measurements at an incidence of 12 • are 10% lower than the theoretical estimate C 0 2.4 m/s for typical oceanic conditions defined by a wind speed of 7 m/s and a significant wave height of 2 m. For Ku-band the measured data is 1 https://doi. 30% lower than the theoretical estimate 2.8 m/s. ∆ C is of the order of 0.2 m/s for a 1 m change in wave height, and cannot be confused with a 1 m/s change in tidal current. The actual measurement of the current velocity from an aircraft at 4 to 18 • incidence angle is, however, made difficult by uncertainties on the measurement geometry, which are much reduced in satellite measurements

SKIM, a candidate satellite mission exploring global ocean currents and waves

The Sea surface KInematics Multiscale monitoring (SKIM) satellite mission is designed to explore ocean surface current and waves. This includes tropical currents, notably the poorly known patterns of divergence and their impact on the ocean heat budget, and monitoring of the emerging Arctic up to 82.5°N. SKIM will also make unprecedented direct measurements of strong currents, from boundary currents to the Antarctic circumpolar current, and their interaction with ocean waves with expected impacts on air-sea fluxes and extreme waves. For the first time, SKIM will directly measure the ocean surface current vector from space. The main instrument on SKIM is a Ka-band conically scanning, multi-beam Doppler radar altimeter/wave scatterometer that includes a state-of-the-art nadir beam comparable to the Poseidon-4 instrument on Sentinel 6. The well proven Doppler pulse-pair technique will give a surface drift velocity representative of the top meter of the ocean, after subtracting a large wave-induced contribution. Horizontal velocity components will be obtained with an accuracy better than 7 cm/s for horizontal wavelengths larger than 80 km and time resolutions larger than 15 days, with a mean revisit time of 4 days for of 99% of the global oceans. This will provide unique and innovative measurements that will further our understanding of the transports in the upper ocean layer, permanently distributing heat, carbon, plankton, and plastics. SKIM will also benefit from co-located measurements of water vapor, rain rate, sea ice concentration, and wind vectors provided by the European operational satellite MetOp-SG(B), allowing many joint analyses. SKIM is one of the two candidate satellite missions under development for ESA Earth Explorer 9. The other candidate is the Far infrared Radiation Understanding and Monitoring (FORUM). The final selection will be announced by September 2019, for a launch in the coming decade

Observation et modélisation des propriétés directionnelles des ondes de gravité courtes

Short surface gravity waves are ubiquitous at the ocean surface, with lengths from a few tens of meters to a meter typically.Knowing their propagation directions at sea is important in several respects, especially for the understanding of sea-state dynamics, airsea interactions and particles surface drift.Their directional distributions are here investigated in the light of the recent progress made in instrumentation techniques. The analysis of ocean bottom seismo-acoustic noise records allows for the extraction of a quasi-universal behavior which indirectly depends on this distribution through the socalled overlap integral. It is coherent with direct observations of the wave field obtained from tri-dimensional reconstructions of the ocean surface elevation field. While the propagation direction of long waves aligns with the wind direction, short waves progressively detach from it towards small scales (bimodality).Comparing those measurements with the predictions of a spectral numerical wave model, based on WAVEWATCH®III environment, allows to realize that they provide qualitatively correct but quantitatively incorrect predictions. One of the possibilities here explored to correct for it, is by accounting for the sources of energy at ±90° to the wind direction, which could be associated with the breaking of long waves. This source term on its own does not explain the shapes of the observed directional distributions. Other mechanisms could come into play that future investigations will help clarify.Les vagues courtes sont omniprésentes à la surface des océans, avec des longueurs de quelques dizaines de mètres au mètre typiquement. Connaitre leurs directions de propagation en mer est important à plusieurs titres, notamment pour la compréhension de la dynamique de l'état de mer, des échanges air-mer ou de la dérive de particules en surface. Ces distributions directionnelles sont étudiées ici au regard des progrès récents réalisés en techniques d'instrumentation. L'analyse du bruit sismo-acoustique enregistré en grandes profondeurs permet d'extraire un comportement quasi-universel qui dépend indirectement de cette distribution à travers ladite intégrale de recouvrement. Il est cohérent avec des observations directes du champ de vagues obtenues à partir de reconstructions tridimensionnelles de la surface de l'océan. Alors que la direction de propagation des vagues longues s'aligne avec celle du vent, les vagues courtes s'en détachent d'autant plus à mesure que leurs échelles diminuent (bimodalité).La comparaison de ces observations avec les prédictions d'un modèle numérique de vagues, basé sur l'environnement WAVEWATCH®III, permet de constater que ces modèles sont qualitativement valables mais encore quantitativement incorrects. Une des possibilités explorées pour corriger cet effet est la prise en compte de sources de vagues courtes à ±90° de la direction du vent, qui pourraient être associées au déferlement des vagues longues. Une telle source à elle seule n'explique pas les formes des distributions directionnelles observées. D'autres mécanismes pourraient intervenir que de futures investigations pourront tenter de clarifier

Observation and modelling of short ocean surface gravity waves directional properties

Les vagues courtes sont omniprésentes à la surface des océans, avec des longueurs de quelques dizaines de mètres au mètre typiquement. Connaitre leurs directions de propagation en mer est important à plusieurs titres, notamment pour la compréhension de la dynamique de l'état de mer, des échanges air-mer ou de la dérive de particules en surface. Ces distributions directionnelles sont étudiées ici au regard des progrès récents réalisés en techniques d'instrumentation. L'analyse du bruit sismo-acoustique enregistré en grandes profondeurs permet d'extraire un comportement quasi-universel qui dépend indirectement de cette distribution à travers ladite intégrale de recouvrement. Il est cohérent avec des observations directes du champ de vagues obtenues à partir de reconstructions tridimensionnelles de la surface de l'océan. Alors que la direction de propagation des vagues longues s'aligne avec celle du vent, les vagues courtes s'en détachent d'autant plus à mesure que leurs échelles diminuent (bimodalité).La comparaison de ces observations avec les prédictions d'un modèle numérique de vagues, basé sur l'environnement WAVEWATCH®III, permet de constater que ces modèles sont qualitativement valables mais encore quantitativement incorrects. Une des possibilités explorées pour corriger cet effet est la prise en compte de sources de vagues courtes à ±90° de la direction du vent, qui pourraient être associées au déferlement des vagues longues. Une telle source à elle seule n'explique pas les formes des distributions directionnelles observées. D'autres mécanismes pourraient intervenir que de futures investigations pourront tenter de clarifier.Short surface gravity waves are ubiquitous at the ocean surface, with lengths from a few tens of meters to a meter typically.Knowing their propagation directions at sea is important in several respects, especially for the understanding of sea-state dynamics, airsea interactions and particles surface drift.Their directional distributions are here investigated in the light of the recent progress made in instrumentation techniques. The analysis of ocean bottom seismo-acoustic noise records allows for the extraction of a quasi-universal behavior which indirectly depends on this distribution through the socalled overlap integral. It is coherent with direct observations of the wave field obtained from tri-dimensional reconstructions of the ocean surface elevation field. While the propagation direction of long waves aligns with the wind direction, short waves progressively detach from it towards small scales (bimodality).Comparing those measurements with the predictions of a spectral numerical wave model, based on WAVEWATCH®III environment, allows to realize that they provide qualitatively correct but quantitatively incorrect predictions. One of the possibilities here explored to correct for it, is by accounting for the sources of energy at ±90° to the wind direction, which could be associated with the breaking of long waves. This source term on its own does not explain the shapes of the observed directional distributions. Other mechanisms could come into play that future investigations will help clarify

Observation et modélisation des propriétés directionnelles des ondes de gravité courtes

Short surface gravity waves are ubiquitous at the ocean surface, with lengths from a few tens of meters to a meter typically.Knowing their propagation directions at sea is important in several respects, especially for the understanding of sea-state dynamics, airsea interactions and particles surface drift.Their directional distributions are here investigated in the light of the recent progress made in instrumentation techniques. The analysis of ocean bottom seismo-acoustic noise records allows for the extraction of a quasi-universal behavior which indirectly depends on this distribution through the socalled overlap integral. It is coherent with direct observations of the wave field obtained from tri-dimensional reconstructions of the ocean surface elevation field. While the propagation direction of long waves aligns with the wind direction, short waves progressively detach from it towards small scales (bimodality).Comparing those measurements with the predictions of a spectral numerical wave model, based on WAVEWATCH®III environment, allows to realize that they provide qualitatively correct but quantitatively incorrect predictions. One of the possibilities here explored to correct for it, is by accounting for the sources of energy at ±90° to the wind direction, which could be associated with the breaking of long waves. This source term on its own does not explain the shapes of the observed directional distributions. Other mechanisms could come into play that future investigations will help clarify.Les vagues courtes sont omniprésentes à la surface des océans, avec des longueurs de quelques dizaines de mètres au mètre typiquement. Connaitre leurs directions de propagation en mer est important à plusieurs titres, notamment pour la compréhension de la dynamique de l'état de mer, des échanges air-mer ou de la dérive de particules en surface. Ces distributions directionnelles sont étudiées ici au regard des progrès récents réalisés en techniques d'instrumentation. L'analyse du bruit sismo-acoustique enregistré en grandes profondeurs permet d'extraire un comportement quasi-universel qui dépend indirectement de cette distribution à travers ladite intégrale de recouvrement. Il est cohérent avec des observations directes du champ de vagues obtenues à partir de reconstructions tridimensionnelles de la surface de l'océan. Alors que la direction de propagation des vagues longues s'aligne avec celle du vent, les vagues courtes s'en détachent d'autant plus à mesure que leurs échelles diminuent (bimodalité).La comparaison de ces observations avec les prédictions d'un modèle numérique de vagues, basé sur l'environnement WAVEWATCH®III, permet de constater que ces modèles sont qualitativement valables mais encore quantitativement incorrects. Une des possibilités explorées pour corriger cet effet est la prise en compte de sources de vagues courtes à ±90° de la direction du vent, qui pourraient être associées au déferlement des vagues longues. Une telle source à elle seule n'explique pas les formes des distributions directionnelles observées. D'autres mécanismes pourraient intervenir que de futures investigations pourront tenter de clarifier

Observation and modelling of short ocean surface gravity waves directional properties

Les vagues courtes sont omniprésentes à la surface des océans, avec des longueurs de quelques dizaines de mètres au mètre typiquement. Connaitre leurs directions de propagation en mer est important à plusieurs titres, notamment pour la compréhension de la dynamique de l'état de mer, des échanges air-mer ou de la dérive de particules en surface. Ces distributions directionnelles sont étudiées ici au regard des progrès récents réalisés en techniques d'instrumentation. L'analyse du bruit sismo-acoustique enregistré en grandes profondeurs permet d'extraire un comportement quasi-universel qui dépend indirectement de cette distribution à travers ladite intégrale de recouvrement. Il est cohérent avec des observations directes du champ de vagues obtenues à partir de reconstructions tridimensionnelles de la surface de l'océan. Alors que la direction de propagation des vagues longues s'aligne avec celle du vent, les vagues courtes s'en détachent d'autant plus à mesure que leurs échelles diminuent (bimodalité).La comparaison de ces observations avec les prédictions d'un modèle numérique de vagues, basé sur l'environnement WAVEWATCH®III, permet de constater que ces modèles sont qualitativement valables mais encore quantitativement incorrects. Une des possibilités explorées pour corriger cet effet est la prise en compte de sources de vagues courtes à ±90° de la direction du vent, qui pourraient être associées au déferlement des vagues longues. Une telle source à elle seule n'explique pas les formes des distributions directionnelles observées. D'autres mécanismes pourraient intervenir que de futures investigations pourront tenter de clarifier.Short surface gravity waves are ubiquitous at the ocean surface, with lengths from a few tens of meters to a meter typically.Knowing their propagation directions at sea is important in several respects, especially for the understanding of sea-state dynamics, airsea interactions and particles surface drift.Their directional distributions are here investigated in the light of the recent progress made in instrumentation techniques. The analysis of ocean bottom seismo-acoustic noise records allows for the extraction of a quasi-universal behavior which indirectly depends on this distribution through the socalled overlap integral. It is coherent with direct observations of the wave field obtained from tri-dimensional reconstructions of the ocean surface elevation field. While the propagation direction of long waves aligns with the wind direction, short waves progressively detach from it towards small scales (bimodality).Comparing those measurements with the predictions of a spectral numerical wave model, based on WAVEWATCH®III environment, allows to realize that they provide qualitatively correct but quantitatively incorrect predictions. One of the possibilities here explored to correct for it, is by accounting for the sources of energy at ±90° to the wind direction, which could be associated with the breaking of long waves. This source term on its own does not explain the shapes of the observed directional distributions. Other mechanisms could come into play that future investigations will help clarify

Covalent Grafting of Silatranes to Carbon Interfaces

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